Institutional History of the Republic of Venice - Part I
Birth and Maritime Expansion (421-1381)
In this article, we will provide a summary of the institutional development of the Republic of Venice. Since the subject matter covers more than a thousand years of history, we will tackle this subject in a series of articles, at the end of which we will explain in detail the institutional organization of the Republic.
From Myth to the first Doge - the gradual emancipation from the Eastern Roman Empire (421-697)
The territory of Venetia, through the fifth and sixth centuries, saw the gradual and spasmodic waning of state authority in the context of the fall of the Roman Empire in the West. Before its fall, in the first half of the 5th century, exiles from the Venetian mainland were already founding settlements in the lagoon, as according to legend the first church to be founded was that of St. James of Rialto in 421. Other waves of exiles from the mainland reached the lagoon, both during the fall (e.g., with the destruction of Aquileia by the Huns) and during and after the Greco-Gothic War (the short-lived attempt of the Eastern Roman Empire to reconquer Italy), after which the Lombards invaded Italy and caused a massive exodus of the inhabitants of Venetia to the islands and swamps of the lagoon, where imperial authority was struggling to survive, having to rely from the outset on local municipal military forces.
From the beginning, the existence of any political or social organization in the lagoon had to adapt to a distant and weak public authority and a precarious existence, as well as an environment in which the economy itself necessarily had to organize differently from the mainland. This influenced its institutional development, promoting strong autonomy and a mercantile attitude, both in fiscal administration and civil organization.
In the following decades, as more and more towns fell under Lombard rule and more refugees fled to the lagoon, many communities arose around the mercantile center of Torcello. Under the leadership of local authorities and clergy, they must have organized themselves into a federative system.
We do not believe it is a coincidence that the religious schism of the three chapters, in which the clergy of Venetia (along with many other Western bishops) rejected the decisions of the Council of Constantinople in 553 and continued for more than a century to oppose the religious impositions from the East. This may have been motivated by a desire for autonomy from an ill-tempered authority - even more so when one considers the context of the Lombard invasions.
From Autonomy to total independence (697-815)
During the 7th century, the lagoon communities from which Venice would arise must have consolidated politically to the point that as early as 697 they elected what may be considered the first duke (later called doge): Paoluccio Anafesto. If Venetia had previously been a mere Byzantine military district governed by annually elected tribunes, it was now able to manifest its interests through the election of a representative in a completely autonomous manner, endowed with such military prerogatives that it was able, for example, to make peace with the Lombard king Liutprand without the assent from its overlord.
This period is not very clear in the sources, but it is certain that the exarchate of Ravenna must have attempted to reestablish its authority over Venetia by sending magistri militum (roman generals) to govern the Venetian duchy for a few years (738-742). As a result of this conflict with the Venetians, he was forced to recognize their autonomy in the election of their own representatives.
It was with the election of Teodato Ipato, and the shift of the center of power from Torcello to Malamocco, that the popular assembly of the Veneti, the Concio, asserted its right to elect its own dukes, or doges.
The following decades saw the new figure of the doge attempt, and fail, to assert its power over the Concio. The main subject of debate was the dukes' practice of associating their heirs with their government, something the Concio - along with the noble families - opposed, often leading to conspiracies and assassinations.
In the same period, between the mid-eighth century and the beginning of the ninth, the Byzantine exarchate in Italy fell at the hands of the Lombards (751), who would shortly thereafter be conquered by the Franks. Soon, they would in turn come into conflict with the Byzantines for control of the Upper Adriatic region. In Venice, this conflict manifested in factional struggles, with supporters of either Franks or Byzantines clashing both among themselves and with the ruling doges, be they pro-Frank or pro-Byzantine.
After decades of conflicts, internal and external, Venice's geopolitical role was defined as a hinge between the two East and West, as defined by the Pax Nicephori (815), which sanctioned both the peace between the Franks and Byzantines and reconfirmed the privileges and autonomies of the nascent Venetian state - for example, the Venetian territories weren’t included in the recently established byzantine themata system.
Venice as intermediary, and Orseoli (815-1032)
From the IX to XI century, the Republic of Venice underwent significant institutional developments. In 812, Angelo Partecipazio, upon becoming doge, relocated the ducal seat from Malamocco to Rialto due to the former's vulnerability to external threats, establishing the latter as the new ducal capital at the heart of the lagoon. This relocation contributed to stability, fostering economic activities, and increasing population density.
In 827, Angelo was succeeded by his son Giustiniano, whose reign saw Venice's military prowess recognized through successful campaigns, boosting the city's prestige. However, political challenges emerged, notably from Emperor Lothar’s attempts to assert authority over the Church in Venice, which were countered by the acquisition of Saint Mark's relics in 828, strengthening the city's autonomy and prestige.
Venice maintained ties with both the Byzantine Empire and Western powers, navigating diplomatic challenges while expanding its maritime influence. The establishment of the Venetian Mint in the late 9th century and the city's naval victories against Saracen pirates underscored its growing economic and military significance as a local power.
The reign of Pietro Orseolo in the late 10th century marked a period of expansion and consolidation. Through diplomatic alliances and military campaigns, Venice asserted control over Dalmatian territories and solidified its position as a dominant maritime power.
However, internal power struggles would lead to the expulsion of the Orseolo family and the enactment of Venice's first constitutional law, prohibiting hereditary co-dukes and establishing a system of dual ducal advisors. This transition marked a pivotal moment in Venice's political evolution, emphasizing institutional stability over dynastic rule.
Overall, the period witnessed Venice's transformation from a fledgling group of coastal communities to a formidable maritime republic, characterized by dynamic shifts in governance and the consolidation of its commercial and political influence in the Mediterranean.
Maritime expansion and the institution of the Maggior Consiglio (1032-1148)
The 11th century saw the beginning of a new phase in relations with the Byzantine Empire, characterized by cooperative initiatives against common threats in the Adriatic Sea-such as the Normans and Saracens. Having secured its dominance of the Adriatic, Venice seized the opportunies presented by the Crusades to expand its influence in the eastern Mediterranean, cooperating with European powers and increasing its trade in the region.
This Venetian meddling in a region hitherto dominated by the Byzantines led to the first conflict between the two powers (1122-1126), in which for the first time the inversion of power relations was evident: Venice, after devastating some Byzantine maritime possessions, obtained the recognition of important trade privileges for its merchants.
In 1143, the Concio voted to establish the Concilium Sapientum (Maggior Consiglio), a body that was to flank the doge in governing the republic. A few years later, in 1148, the Promissio Ducis was established, the oath by which the newly elected doge was to pledge his allegiance to the Republic and recognize the limits to his own power.
Although this development is indicative of the contemporary communal experience underway in the rest of Italy, the decisive republican direction that Venice was taking is significant.
The Assertion of Venetian power in the Eastern Mediterranean and the oligarchic developments of the Republic (1143-1381)
Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Venice asserted itself in the Eastern Mediterranean, supporting the Crusader effort and acquiring overseas territories, going so far as to clash and divide the Byzantine Empire with the western powers during the Fourth Crusade (1204) and competing with them for dominance and commercial interests in the region, for example clashing with Genoa and other maritime republics and establishing spheres of influence after decadees of conflicts.
At this point, Venice was dominated by mercantile interests, manifested in the instrument of the Colleganza, a type of contract under which it was possible for a private individual to invest capital in a commercial enterprise and share the profits with those who would run it - in essence, it was similar to a joint-stock company for the financing of a single trade expedition.
Gradually, the power of the ancient popular assembly (the Concio) was increasingly taken over by other institutions: the aforementioned Maggior Consiglio, which assumed legislative power and authority over the election of the doge, in turn emancipated itself from the Concio after the establishment of the Quarantia, an assembly of forty electors chosen to elect the doge.
This development reflected the oligarchic configuration that the Republic was assuming, the development of which culminated between 1297 and 1319 with the Serrata del Maggior Consiglio, under which membership in the Maggior Consiglio was made hereditary, effectively excluding the general population and the minor aristocracy from the election of the doge.
This act would institute barriers to the participation of a large segment of the population in the more lucrative aspects of long-distance trade. This diminished the ability of those outside the hereditary aristocracy to participate in decision-making processes. The stratification of political and economic power would lead to a move away from political openness, economic competitiveness and social mobility to instead favor political closure, economic inequality and social stratification. This, in turn, may have made the future expansion into the Venetian hinterland more attractive to the Republic.
In the next article we will explore the apogee of Venetian power and how the Republic changed during that period.